1. Explain about letter style?
Block format
Block format features all elements of the letter aligned to the left margin of the page. It has a neat and simple appearance. Paragraphs are separated by a double line space.
Modified block format
Modified block differs from block style in that the date, sign off, and signature lines begin at the centre point of the page line. The beginning of each paragraph is indented five spaces, along with the subject line, if used. Depending on the length of the letter, paragraphs may be separated by a single or double line space.
Semi-block format
Semi-block is similar to block but has a more informal appearance. All elements are left-aligned, except for the beginning of each paragraph, which is indented five spaces. Paragraphs are separated by a double line space.
2. Explain the differences letter style?
How to Use Letter Examples
It is a good idea to review letter and email examples before writing your own. Examples can help you see what kind of content you should include in your letter. Examples can also help you with the layout and format of your letter.
While examples, templates, and guidelines are a great starting point to your letter, you should always be flexible. Do be sure to take the time to personalize your letter, note, or email message so it reflects the specific reason why you are writing.
Types of Letters With Examples
Review this list of a variety of different types of letters and email messages with examples of each, including appreciation letters, cover letters, job application letters, employee letters, reference, and referral letters, thank you letters, and more letter examples and templates.
Use the samples as a starting point for your own letters, then customize your letters so they fit your personal and professional circumstances and reasons for writing.
Here's a list of letters with many examples and templates for each type of letter.
What to Include in a Business Letter or Email
In some instances, what you include, how you write the correspondence, and the format of the letter will vary. However, a basic professional letter will include the following:
Subject line: If you are sending an email, include a clear subject line that concisely explains the purpose of your email. For example, it might read, "Subject: Congratulations on Promotion."
Contact information: Include all your contact information — full name, address, phone number, and email address — so it's easy for the person you are contacting to respond to you. In a letter, you will include this information at the top of your letter (you will then follow this information with the date, and the contact information of the person to whom you are writing). In an email, you will include this information in your email signature, below your name.
Greeting: Include a salutation at the start of your letter. Make sure you use the appropriate name and title for the person.
A brief introduction: After your salutation, include a brief introduction. This might include a brief, “I hope you are well,” or some other friendly introductory phrase. Then, dive right into explaining why you are writing.
The main purpose of your letter: The main part of your letter will focus on your purpose. When writing the letter, be concise. Two or three paragraphs are plenty. Your letter shouldn't be longer than one page. If it is an email, it should be even shorter. If you have additional information to share with the reader, offer to discuss it during a call or provide an attachment or enclosure with the details.
Closing: End your letter with a professional closing that conveys your thanks and respect. Closings like “Sincerely,” “Best,” and “Regards” work well.
Signature: If you are mailing a hard copy of the letter, include your handwritten signature above your typed signature. If you are emailing the letter, just include your typed signature.
Review these guidelines for writing letters and email messages that will get read before you start your letter.
3. Request Letter (Full Block)
123 Anywhere Place
London
SW1 6DP
1 July, 2014
Mr John Smith
XYZ Partnership
10 Utopia Drive
London
SW1 1AE
Dear Mr Smith:
My former colleague Joan Brown informed me that you are seeking to hire an office manager. I worked with Ms Brown at Acme and have 10 years of experience as an administrative assistant. I have long admired XYZ Partnership and would be honoured to work for your company.
As you can see from my CV, I have performed many administrative duties in my previous positions at Acme and Ajax. At Ajax, I facilitated the company's transition from handwritten to digital records. That work paved the way for my move to Acme, where I assisted the director of innovation in tracking the development of new products. I helped introduce the company's workflow management system, which enabled Acme to cut the average development time of its software upgrades from 18 weeks to 12 weeks.
I would be pleased to speak with you to discuss the details of the office manager position. Thank you for your consideration of my application.
Best regards,
Jane Clark
Kamis, 01 Februari 2018
Inquiry Style
Modified Block Style
The block style is also known as the Full block style. In this style, all elements of the letter are justified to the left. This business letter style is becoming very common, for the obvious reason that typing in this manner is easier, especially on a computer.
Inquiry letter Format – Modified Block Style
The block style is also known as the Full block style. In this style, all elements of the letter are justified to the left. This business letter style is becoming very common, for the obvious reason that typing in this manner is easier, especially on a computer.
Inquiry letter Format – Modified Block Style
Hanging Indentation Style
A hanging indented letter style is when a paragraph is indented so that the first line hangs over the rest. Normally you would see a first line indent. This is when the first line is moved to the right and the rest of the paragraph starts at the margin. The most common place hanging indents are used is on a bibliography reference page. When typing you can change the indentation by either formatting the paragraph or changing the page margins.
Inquiry letter Format – Hanging Indentation Style
Inquiry letter – Hanging Style
Has a shape similar to the style of Semi Block. In the hanging ala format the paragraph is like, or more leaning back Semi style blocks each new paragraph is given a write distance, or writing the paragraph more deeply.
Inquiry letter Format – Hanging Style
COVER LETTER
Nurul Huda
(+62)-813-4567-8901 | nurulhudaote@gmail.com
Objective
To obtain an internship to enhance my skills in the field of community services.
Education
Bachelor of Science, Expected Graduation – June 2017
Faculty of Math & Science, Gunadarma university
Faculty of Math & Science, Gunadarma university
Qualifications Summary
§ Ability to write and proofread various types of documents.
§ Ability to settle in a working environment as per required.
§ Excellent communication skill.
§ Experience in the field of fundraising.
Computer Skills
§ Experience with both PC and Macintosh Computers.
§ Proficient in Microsoft office and Internet handling.
Leadership Experience
§ Volunteer Coordinator, Sejiwa Foundation (2014 – 2015)
§ Have led group discussions on various social issues
§ Initiated a campaign to help marginal people in remote areas to make them aware of the importance of higher education.
§ Head of Sponsorship Division, Jazz Goes to Campus Event (2014)
§ Successfully fundraised IDR 100 M from various sponsors
§ Volunteer, The First Computer Camp for The Blind (2013)
§ Volunteering in an event targeted for the blind
Organizational Experience
§ Head of Community Development, Student Board of Faculty of Math & Science, gunadarma university (2015 – 2016)
§ Member of Community Development, Student Board of Faculty of Math & Science, gunadarma university (2014 – 2015)
Kamis, 16 Juni 2016
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Arranged by:
- Hendra Eka
Suparman (23215111)
- Nurul Huda (25215234)
- Theo Manggalapi Wibowo (26215867)
UNIVERSITY GUNADARMA
2016
CHAPTER 1
DISCUSSION
a. Teori
Classical In PerdaganganInternasional
1. Adam Smith
The theory of value used is the theory of production costs, although the original using the labor theory of value. Goods have use value and exchange value. Cost of production determines the relative price of goods, so as to create two kinds of prices, namely the price of the natural and the market price in the long term the market will tend to equal the price of natural price, and with the theory arose the concept of the paradox of value.
2. Ricardo
a thinker of the most prominent among all the classical school of experts. He is most famous for the precision thinking, his approach almost entirely deductive method. David Ricardo has developed the ideas of Adam Smith more terjabar and also more systematic. And deductive theoretical approach, his thinking is based on the hypothesis used as terms of reference for a review of the problem according to the logic approach. The theory developed by Ricardo involves four groups of issues, namely: the theory of income distribution as a result of the division of the whole
production and served as wage theory, the theory of land rent, interest and profit theory, the theory of value and prices, international trade theory and the theory of accumulation and economic development.
Production and served as wage theory, the theory of land rent, interest and profit theory, the theory of value and prices, international trade theory, and the theory of accumulation and economic development.
1. Adam Smith
The theory of value used is the theory of production costs, although the original using the labor theory of value. Goods have use value and exchange value. Cost of production determines the relative price of goods, so as to create two kinds of prices, namely the price of the natural and the market price in the long term the market will tend to equal the price of natural price, and with the theory arose the concept of the paradox of value.
2. Ricardo
a thinker of the most prominent among all the classical school of experts. He is most famous for the precision thinking, his approach almost entirely deductive method. David Ricardo has developed the ideas of Adam Smith more terjabar and also more systematic. And deductive theoretical approach, his thinking is based on the hypothesis used as terms of reference for a review of the problem according to the logic approach. The theory developed by Ricardo involves four groups of issues, namely: the theory of income distribution as a result of the division of the whole
production and served as wage theory, the theory of land rent, interest and profit theory, the theory of value and prices, international trade theory and the theory of accumulation and economic development.
Production and served as wage theory, the theory of land rent, interest and profit theory, the theory of value and prices, international trade theory, and the theory of accumulation and economic development.
b. Neo-Classical
Theory In PerdaganganInternasional
Neoclassical school of thought has changed the outlook on the economy both in theory and in the methodology. The theory of value is no longer based on the value of the labor or production costs but have switched to the satisfaction of the marginal (marginal utility). This approach is a new approach in economic theory
Neoclassical school of thought has changed the outlook on the economy both in theory and in the methodology. The theory of value is no longer based on the value of the labor or production costs but have switched to the satisfaction of the marginal (marginal utility). This approach is a new approach in economic theory
1.
Gossen
One of the founders of the neoclassical school of that Gossen, he has contributed to the economic thinking is later called Gossen's Law I and II. I Gossen law describes the relationship of quantity of goods consumed and the level of satisfaction obtained, while the second Gossen law, how consumers allocate income to different kinds of goods needed. Besides Gossen, Jevons and Menger also developed the theory of marginal value of satisfaction. Jevons argued that it is the individual behaviors that play a role in determining the value of goods. And differences in preferences that raises the price difference. While Menger explained the theory of the value of the order of various types of goods, according to him the value of an item is determined by the lowest satisfaction levels that can be fulfilled. With the theory of the order of this item is included at the same time distribution theory.
One of the founders of the neoclassical school of that Gossen, he has contributed to the economic thinking is later called Gossen's Law I and II. I Gossen law describes the relationship of quantity of goods consumed and the level of satisfaction obtained, while the second Gossen law, how consumers allocate income to different kinds of goods needed. Besides Gossen, Jevons and Menger also developed the theory of marginal value of satisfaction. Jevons argued that it is the individual behaviors that play a role in determining the value of goods. And differences in preferences that raises the price difference. While Menger explained the theory of the value of the order of various types of goods, according to him the value of an item is determined by the lowest satisfaction levels that can be fulfilled. With the theory of the order of this item is included at the same time distribution theory.
2. Walras
Thought that was amazing compiled by Walras theory of general equilibrium through four simultaneous equations. In this system occurs linkages between various economic activities such as the theory of production, consumption and distribution. Assumptions used Walras is perfect competition, the amount of capital, labor, and land is limited, while the production technology and consumer tastes anyway. If there is a change in any of these assumptions, the changes relating to all economic activity.
Thought that was amazing compiled by Walras theory of general equilibrium through four simultaneous equations. In this system occurs linkages between various economic activities such as the theory of production, consumption and distribution. Assumptions used Walras is perfect competition, the amount of capital, labor, and land is limited, while the production technology and consumer tastes anyway. If there is a change in any of these assumptions, the changes relating to all economic activity.
1.2 Export
Trade Indonesia
Posted on February 21, 2016
Author: Silvia Hanna (Staff Department of Strategic Studies BEM FEB 2016)
Each country is never apart from export and import activities. Import-export activities based on the condition that every country has the characteristics of each resource and certainly these characteristics differ from country to country. To complement and fill the gap tersebutlah characteristics, import-export activities performed. It is also important to note, indirectly, export and import activities have contributed significant role in spurring economic growth in each country. Based on data taken from the Ministry of Commerce of the Republic of Indonesia, exports and imports are also included in the economic indicators of Indonesia. Indonesia is a country rich in resources. However, if it is able to rule out the possibility of Indonesia's import value is more dominating than the value of its exports?
Export
According KBBI, understanding is the delivery of merchandise exports abroad. The merchandise in question can be physical goods or services. Export is one of the important benchmark to determine how much economic growth in a country. Of these export activities, it can be assured of business activity in the real sector more awake. Production of goods not only rotates in the country only but also rotates in international trade. That is why, in the long term export activities can be a hero in foreign exchange for the country's economic growth.
However, according to the data obtained, the development of Indonesian exports starting in 2011-2015 did not increase the contrary. Based on the chart below, in the period 2011-2015, the export value of Indonesia continues to decline each year of 203,496.60 million US $ to 150,252.50 million US $ in 2015 ago. It can be concluded, from the years 2011-2015, the decline in export value amounted to 26.16%.. Development of Export Value Year 2011-2015 in Indonesia (million US $)
Each country has always sought to develop export value of commodity exports superior. Export growth is very important in improving the state revenue that affect the development of the national economy. Since then, exports became the main focus in promoting economic growth in line with the change of emphasis on the industrialization strategy of import substitution to export promotion. According to BPS, komotidi Indonesian export commodities are in the non-oil and gas sector. Whereas, for the oil and gas sector alone, its development is still very much under the Non-Oil and Gas sector.
Author: Silvia Hanna (Staff Department of Strategic Studies BEM FEB 2016)
Each country is never apart from export and import activities. Import-export activities based on the condition that every country has the characteristics of each resource and certainly these characteristics differ from country to country. To complement and fill the gap tersebutlah characteristics, import-export activities performed. It is also important to note, indirectly, export and import activities have contributed significant role in spurring economic growth in each country. Based on data taken from the Ministry of Commerce of the Republic of Indonesia, exports and imports are also included in the economic indicators of Indonesia. Indonesia is a country rich in resources. However, if it is able to rule out the possibility of Indonesia's import value is more dominating than the value of its exports?
Export
According KBBI, understanding is the delivery of merchandise exports abroad. The merchandise in question can be physical goods or services. Export is one of the important benchmark to determine how much economic growth in a country. Of these export activities, it can be assured of business activity in the real sector more awake. Production of goods not only rotates in the country only but also rotates in international trade. That is why, in the long term export activities can be a hero in foreign exchange for the country's economic growth.
However, according to the data obtained, the development of Indonesian exports starting in 2011-2015 did not increase the contrary. Based on the chart below, in the period 2011-2015, the export value of Indonesia continues to decline each year of 203,496.60 million US $ to 150,252.50 million US $ in 2015 ago. It can be concluded, from the years 2011-2015, the decline in export value amounted to 26.16%.. Development of Export Value Year 2011-2015 in Indonesia (million US $)
Each country has always sought to develop export value of commodity exports superior. Export growth is very important in improving the state revenue that affect the development of the national economy. Since then, exports became the main focus in promoting economic growth in line with the change of emphasis on the industrialization strategy of import substitution to export promotion. According to BPS, komotidi Indonesian export commodities are in the non-oil and gas sector. Whereas, for the oil and gas sector alone, its development is still very much under the Non-Oil and Gas sector.
Source: Calculated based on data from the Ministry of Commerce in 2015
Comparison of Oil and Gas Export Value of Non-Oil and Gas in Indonesia
2011-2015 (million US $)
Source: Calculated
based on data from the Ministry of Commerce in 2015
1.3 Foreign Power Level
In its ranking of the World Economic Forum (WEF), the competitiveness of Indonesia experienced a big leap from rank 50 to rank 38. The leap is a big achievement for Indonesia, and only surpassed by Ecuador and Lesotho. However, Indonesia's ranking leap of the new approach the ratings of other ASEAN countries, especially countries Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei Darussalam. This triggers the big question is whether Indonesia is ready to face the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) which will be applicable in 2015? In the face of the implementation of the AEC in 2015, Indonesia still faces some challenges, both external and internal. External challenges faced include the level of competition is increasingly fierce trade, the growing trade deficit with other ASEAN countries Indonesia, and how Indonesia can enhance its investment attractiveness. Meanwhile, Indonesia's internal challenges include the lack of public understanding of AEC, unpreparedness regions face AEC, the level of regional development are varied and human resources and labor conditions Indonesia.Disamping challenges, Indonesia still has a great opportunity to be able to take advantage of the implementation MEA for the welfare of the Indonesian people. Until now, Indonesia is still the investor investment destination in the country or abroad. The high level of investment has driven economic growth is relatively high compared to other ASEAN countries. Another potential which is owned by Indonesia is the total population. The population of this great Indonesia (the demographic bonus) may be the key to success for improving the competitiveness of Indonesia. With the support of education and skills, then labor productivity will increase.
Factor productivity will be key to how Indonesia can face the MEA. Logically simple, productivity is a key element in the competition. With high productivity production is expected to become more efficient and can provide more competitive price. However, David Ricardo can break this argument (which was built by Adam Smith) the concept of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo, the benefits of productivity is not the only factor a country can win the competition, but other factors may also cause a state to compete. In other words, which can reduce production costs on average not only productivity but also factor input costs are low. The low cost of labor is the factor most often relied upon by a country that has a comparative advantage. In addition, factors ownership of natural resources and efficient financial markets is another factor that brings on comparative advantage.
Therefore, comparisons of competitiveness with neighboring countries should not be compared levels of productivity through TFP but also can be compared with the factors such as infrastructure, logistics, investment, small and medium enterprises, and the variety and volume of products traded between ASEAN countries and with the rest of the world.
In its ranking of the World Economic Forum (WEF), the competitiveness of Indonesia experienced a big leap from rank 50 to rank 38. The leap is a big achievement for Indonesia, and only surpassed by Ecuador and Lesotho. However, Indonesia's ranking leap of the new approach the ratings of other ASEAN countries, especially countries Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei Darussalam. This triggers the big question is whether Indonesia is ready to face the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) which will be applicable in 2015? In the face of the implementation of the AEC in 2015, Indonesia still faces some challenges, both external and internal. External challenges faced include the level of competition is increasingly fierce trade, the growing trade deficit with other ASEAN countries Indonesia, and how Indonesia can enhance its investment attractiveness. Meanwhile, Indonesia's internal challenges include the lack of public understanding of AEC, unpreparedness regions face AEC, the level of regional development are varied and human resources and labor conditions Indonesia.Disamping challenges, Indonesia still has a great opportunity to be able to take advantage of the implementation MEA for the welfare of the Indonesian people. Until now, Indonesia is still the investor investment destination in the country or abroad. The high level of investment has driven economic growth is relatively high compared to other ASEAN countries. Another potential which is owned by Indonesia is the total population. The population of this great Indonesia (the demographic bonus) may be the key to success for improving the competitiveness of Indonesia. With the support of education and skills, then labor productivity will increase.
Factor productivity will be key to how Indonesia can face the MEA. Logically simple, productivity is a key element in the competition. With high productivity production is expected to become more efficient and can provide more competitive price. However, David Ricardo can break this argument (which was built by Adam Smith) the concept of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo, the benefits of productivity is not the only factor a country can win the competition, but other factors may also cause a state to compete. In other words, which can reduce production costs on average not only productivity but also factor input costs are low. The low cost of labor is the factor most often relied upon by a country that has a comparative advantage. In addition, factors ownership of natural resources and efficient financial markets is another factor that brings on comparative advantage.
Therefore, comparisons of competitiveness with neighboring countries should not be compared levels of productivity through TFP but also can be compared with the factors such as infrastructure, logistics, investment, small and medium enterprises, and the variety and volume of products traded between ASEAN countries and with the rest of the world.
CHAPTER 2
NEWS AND ANALYSIS
Deficit, Jokowi
Urged to Boost Trade with China
JAKARTA - President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) received the
visit of the Delegation State Councilor of the
People's Republic of China at the State Palace, Jakarta
today to improve bilateral relations on all fronts. Trade
and investment is one of the subjects as Foreign Minister (FM) Retno Marsudi.
He explained that the numbers of trade between Indonesia and China is experiencing a declining trend, but claimed investment from China has jumped by 400%. According to RI and China's trade numbers large enough in numbers USD44,4 million USD. But President Jokowi asked that trade figures between the two countries again improved due to a declining trend.
"In the field of trade, the amount is large enough that USD44,4 billion. But there is a downward trend since the president requested jointly that the downward trend may be restored or improved terms of trade figures," he said at the Presidential Palace Complex, Jakarta, Monday (09/05/2016).
During the meeting, he continued, there was a suggestion to Indonesia in order to establish the Indonesian Trade Promotion Centre (ITPC) in Shanghai, and Promotion Center in Beijing. "The President asked for these trade barriers can be removed," he added.
Meanwhile described for investment, the Chinese delegation expressed this year there is a very significant increase in investment, amounting to 400%.
"And the President also expressed the efforts that have been undertaken by Indonesia to attract foreign investment to Indonesia. The point two huge exist in trade and investment and the President also expressed the intensity of all the lines of communication, from the presidential level to the president," he concluded.
For information on the trade balance data are reported to the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), Indonesia recorded value of exports to China amounted to USD 2.84 billion in the period from January to March 2016. This figure dropped 9.34% over the same period the previous USD 3.13 billion.
While lodging March, the realization of exports to China worth USD 1 billion and Indonesia's imports from China in the first quarter of 2016 reached USD 7.12 billion. This figure is down from the same period last year of USD 7.45 billion.
Analysis
From the news over Indonesia still have to improve performance in exports to China that a downward trend, with the state of the deterioration of Indonesia's exports to China incurred was meeting to discuss "a proposal on Indonesia to establish Indonesian Trade Promotion Centre (ITPC) in Shanghai, and Promotion Center in Beijing. "The President asked for these trade barriers can be removed," he added.
He explained that the numbers of trade between Indonesia and China is experiencing a declining trend, but claimed investment from China has jumped by 400%. According to RI and China's trade numbers large enough in numbers USD44,4 million USD. But President Jokowi asked that trade figures between the two countries again improved due to a declining trend.
"In the field of trade, the amount is large enough that USD44,4 billion. But there is a downward trend since the president requested jointly that the downward trend may be restored or improved terms of trade figures," he said at the Presidential Palace Complex, Jakarta, Monday (09/05/2016).
During the meeting, he continued, there was a suggestion to Indonesia in order to establish the Indonesian Trade Promotion Centre (ITPC) in Shanghai, and Promotion Center in Beijing. "The President asked for these trade barriers can be removed," he added.
Meanwhile described for investment, the Chinese delegation expressed this year there is a very significant increase in investment, amounting to 400%.
"And the President also expressed the efforts that have been undertaken by Indonesia to attract foreign investment to Indonesia. The point two huge exist in trade and investment and the President also expressed the intensity of all the lines of communication, from the presidential level to the president," he concluded.
For information on the trade balance data are reported to the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), Indonesia recorded value of exports to China amounted to USD 2.84 billion in the period from January to March 2016. This figure dropped 9.34% over the same period the previous USD 3.13 billion.
While lodging March, the realization of exports to China worth USD 1 billion and Indonesia's imports from China in the first quarter of 2016 reached USD 7.12 billion. This figure is down from the same period last year of USD 7.45 billion.
Analysis
From the news over Indonesia still have to improve performance in exports to China that a downward trend, with the state of the deterioration of Indonesia's exports to China incurred was meeting to discuss "a proposal on Indonesia to establish Indonesian Trade Promotion Centre (ITPC) in Shanghai, and Promotion Center in Beijing. "The President asked for these trade barriers can be removed," he added.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdagangan_internasional
http://www.academia.edu/8732972/TEORI-TEORI_PERDAGANGAN_INTERNASIONAL
http://bem.feb.ugm.ac.id/perkembangan-ekspor-impor-di-indonesia/
http://kemenkeu.go.id/sites/default/files/Kajian%20Daya%20Saing%20dan%20Produktivitas%20Indonesia%20Menghadapi%20MEA.pdf
http://ekbis.sindonews.com/read/1107191/34/defisit-jokowi-desak-genjot-perdagangan-ri-china-1462794704
Kamis, 14 April 2016
SEJARAH EKONOMI INDONESIA
SEJARAH EKONOMI INDONESIA
KELOMPOK :
- Hendra Eka
Suparman (23215111)
- Nurul Huda (25215234)
- Theo Manggalapi Wibowo (26215867)
UNIVERSITAS
GUNADARMA
2016
Daftar Isi
Sejarah pra konoalisme........................................................................................................ 1
Sistem Monopoli VOC.................................................................................................... 1-2
Sistem tanam paksa.......................................................................................................... 2-3
Sistem ekonomi kapitalis liberal.......................................................................................... 3
Era pendudukan jepang................................................................................................... 3-5
Cita – cita ekonomi merdeka............................................................................................... 5
Ekonomi Indonesia setiap periode pemerintahaan orde
lama, orde baru, dan reformasi
......................................................................................................................................... 6-9
Daftar Pustaka................................................................................................................... 10
Sejarah pra konoalisme
Pada masa sebelum kekuatan
Eropa Barat mampu menguasai daratan dan perairan Asia Tenggara, belum ada
Indonesia. Nusantara yang sekarang kita kenal sebagai Indonesia terdiri dari
pulau-pulau dan tanah yang dikuasai oleh berbagai kerajaan dan kekaisaran,
kadang hidup berdampingan dengan damai sementara di lain waktu berada pada
kondisi berperang satu sama lain. Nusantara yang luas tersebut kurang memiliki
rasa persatuan sosial dan politik yang dimiliki Indonesia saat ini.Meskipun
demikian, jaringan perdagangan terpadu telah berkembang di wilayah ini
terhitung sejak awal permulaan sejarah Asia.Terhubung ke jaringan perdagangan
merupakan aset penting bagi sebuah kerajaan untuk mendapatkan kekayaan dan
komoditas, yang diperlukan untuk menjadi kekuatan besar. Tapi semakin menjadi global
jaringan perdagangan ini di nusantara, semakin banyak pengaruh asing berhasil
masuk; suatu perkembangan yang akhirnya akan mengarah pada kondisi penjajahan.
Keberadaan
sumber-sumber tertulis adalah yang memisahkan masa sejarah dari masa
prasejarah.Karena sedikitnya sumber-sumber tertulis yang berasal dari masa
sebelum tahun 500 Masehi, sejarah Indonesia dimulai agak terlambat.Diduga
sebagian besar tulisan dibuat pada bahan yang mudah rusak dan - ditambah dengan
iklim tropis lembab dan standar teknik konservasi yang berkualitas rendah pada
saat itu - ini berarti bahwa sejarawan harus bergantung pada inskripsi/prasasti
di atas batu dan studi sisa-sisa candi kuno untuk menelusuri sejarah paling
terdahulu nusantara.Kedua pendekatan ini memberikan informasi mengenai struktur
politik tua karena baik sastra maupun pembangunan candi adalah contoh budaya
tinggi yang diperuntukkan bagi elit penguasa.
Sejarah Indonesia memiliki
ciri sangat khas, yaitu umumnya berpusat di bagian barat Nusantara (khususnya
di pulau Sumatera dan Jawa).Karena sebagian besar bagian timur Nusantara
memiliki sedikit kegiatan ekonomi sepanjang sejarah (terletak jauh dari jalur
perdagangan utama), hal itu menyebabkan sedikitnya kegiatan politik; suatu
situasi yang berlanjut hingga hari ini.
Sistem Monopoli VOC
Monopoli perdagangan VOC di Indonesia – Dengan berbagai cara VOC berusaha menguasai kerajaan-kerajaan di Indonesia serta pelabuhan-pelabuhan penting. Kecuali itu, juga berusaha memaksakan monopoli perdagangan rempah-rempah.Bagaimana VOC menjalankan usahanya tersebut? Pertama-tama berusaha menguasai salah satu pelabuhan penting, yang akan dijadikan pusat VOC.
Monopoli perdagangan VOC di Indonesia – Dengan berbagai cara VOC berusaha menguasai kerajaan-kerajaan di Indonesia serta pelabuhan-pelabuhan penting. Kecuali itu, juga berusaha memaksakan monopoli perdagangan rempah-rempah.Bagaimana VOC menjalankan usahanya tersebut? Pertama-tama berusaha menguasai salah satu pelabuhan penting, yang akan dijadikan pusat VOC.
Untuk keperluan
tersebut ia mengincar kota Jayakarta. Ketika itu Jayakarta di bawah kekuasaan Kerajaan Islam
Banten.Sultan Banten mengangkat Pangeran Wijayakrama sebagai adipati di
Jayakarta.Mula-mula VOC mendapat izin dari Pangeran Wijayakrama untuk
mendirikan kantor dagang di Jayakarta. Tetapi ketika gubernur jenderal dijabat
oleh J.P. Coen.Pangeran Wijayakrama diserangnya.Kota Jayakarta direbut dan
dibakar. Kemudian di atas reruntuhan kota Jayakarta, J.P. Coen membangun sebuah
kota baru.Kota baru itu diberinya nama Batavia. Peristiwa tersebut pada tahun
1619.Kota Batavia itulah yang kemudian menjadi pusat VOC.
Setelah memiliki
sebuah kota sebagai pusatnya, maka kedudukan VOC makin kuat. Usaha untuk
menguasai kerajaan-kerajaan dan pelabuhan-pelabuhan penting ditingkatkan. Cara
melakukannya dengan politik dividi et
impera atau politik mengadu domba.Mengadu dombakan sesama bangsa
Indonesia atau antara satu kerajaan dengan kerajaan lain. Tujuannya agar
kerajaan-kerajaan di Indonesia menjadi lemah, sehingga mudah dikuasainya.VOC
juga sering ikut campur tangan dalam urusan pemerintahan kerajaan-kerajaan di
Indonesia.Untuk menguasai perdagangan rempah-rempah, ia memaksakan monopoli,
terutama di Maluku. Dalam usahanya melaksanakan monopoli, VOC menetapkan
beberapa peraturan, yaitu sebagai berikut :
1. Rakyat Maluku
dilarang menjual rempah-rempah selain kepada VOC.
2. Jumlah tanaman
rempah-rempah ditentukan oleh VOC.
3. Tempat menanam
rempah-rempah juga ditentukan oleh VOC.
Agar pelaksanaan
monopoli tersebut benar-benar ditaati oleh rakyat, VOC mengadakan Pelayaran Hongi.Pelayaran Hongi ialah
patroli dengan perahu kora-kora, yang dilengkapi dengan senjata, untuk
mengawasi pelaksanaan monopoli di Maluku.Bila terjadi pelanggaran terhadap
peraturan tersebut di atas, maka pelanggarnya dijatuhi hukuman.Hukuman terhadap
para pelanggar peraturan monopoli disebut ekstirpasi.Hukuman itu berupa pembinasaan tanaman rempah-rempah
milik petani yang melanggar monopoli, dan pemiliknya disiksa atau bisa-bisa
dibunuh.Bukan main kejamnya tindakan VOC waktu itu.Akibatnya penderitaan rakyat
memuncak.Puluhan ribu batang tanaman pala dan cengkih dibinasakan.Ribuan rakyat
disiksa, dibunuh atau dijadikan budak.Ribuan pula rakyat yang melarikan diri
meninggalkan kampung halamannya, karena ngeri melihat kekejaman Belanda.Tidak
sedikit yang meninggal di hutan atau gunung karena kelaparan.Tanah milik rakyat
yang ditinggalkan, oleh VOC dibagi-bagikan kepada pegawainya.Karena kekejaman
tersebut maka timbulah perlawanan di berbagai daerah.
Sistem tanam paksa
Pada tahun 1830
pada saat pemerintah penjajah hampir bangkrut setelah terlibat perang Jawa
terbesar (Perang Diponegoro, 1825-1830), Gubernur
Jenderal Judo mendapat izin khusus melaksanakan sistem Tanam Paksa (Cultuur
Stelsel) dengan tujuan utama mengisi kas pemerintahan jajahan yang kosong, atau
menutup defisit anggaran pemerintah penjajahan.Sistem tanam paksa berangkat dari asumsi bahwa desa-desa di Jawa berutang sewa tanah kepada pemerintah, yang biasanya diperhitungkan senilai 40% dari hasil panen utama desa yang bersangkutan. Van den Bosch ingin setiap desa menyisihkan sebagian tanahnya untuk ditanam komoditi ekspor ke Eropa (kopi, tebu, dan nila). Penduduk dipaksa untuk menggunakan sebagian tanah garapan (minimal seperlima luas, 20%) dan menyisihkan sebagian hari kerja untuk bekerja bagi pemerintah dengan mengikuti tanam paksa, desa akan mampu melunasi utang pajak tanahnya. Bila pendapatan desa dari penjualan komoditi ekspor itu lebih banyak daripada pajak tanah yang mesti dibayar, desa itu akan menerima kelebihannya. Jika kurang, desa tersebut mesti membayar kekurangan tadi dari sumber-sumber lain.
Sistem tanam paksa diperkenalkan secara perlahan sejak tahun 1830 sampai tahun 1835.Menjelang tahun 1840 sistem ini telah sepenuhnya berjalan di Jawa.
Pemerintah kolonial memobilisasi lahan pertanian, kerbau, sapi, dan tenaga kerja yang serba gratis.Komoditas kopi, teh, tembakau, tebu, yang permintaannya di pasar dunia sedang membubung, dibudidayakan.Bagi pemerintah kolonial Hindia Belanda, sistem ini berhasil luar biasa.Karena antara 1831-1871 Batavia tidak hanya bisa membangun sendiri, melainkan punya hasil bersih 823 juta gulden untuk kas di Kerajaan Belanda.Umumnya, lebih dari 30 persen anggaran belanja kerajaan berasal kiriman dari Batavia.Pada 1860-an, 72% penerimaan Kerajaan Belanda disumbang dari Oost Indische atau Hindia Belanda.Langsung atau tidak langsung, Batavia menjadi sumber modal. Misalnya, membiayai kereta api nasional Belanda yang serba mewah. Kas kerajaan Belanda pun mengalami surplus.
Badan operasi sistem tanam paksa Nederlandsche Handel Maatchappij (NHM) merupakan reinkarnasi VOC yang telah bangkrut.Akibat tanam paksa ini, produksi beras semakin berkurang, dan harganya pun melambung.Pada tahun 1843, muncul bencana kelaparan di Cirebon, Jawa Barat. Kelaparan juga melanda Jawa Tengah, tahun 1850 sistem tanam paksa yang kejam ini, setelah mendapat protes keras dari berbagai kalangan di Belanda, akhirnya dihapus pada tahun 1870, meskipun untuk tanaman kopi di luar Jawa masih terus berlangsung sampai 1915. Program yang dijalankan untuk menggantinya adalah sistem sewa tanah dalam UU Agraria 1870.
Sistem ekonomi kapitalis liberal
Sistem ekonomi
kapitalis dikenal juga sebagai sistem ekonomi liberal.Sistem ekonomi
kapitalis merupakan suatu sistem ekonomi yang menghendaki kebebasan
yang seluas-luasnya bagi setiap individu untuk melakukan tindakan ekonomi tanpa
campur tangan dari pemerintah. Kondisi ini benar-benar tidak memerlukan campur
tangan pemerintah atau dengan kata lain, pemerintah akan benar-benar lepas
tangan terhadap pengambilan keputusan ekonomi.
Sistem ekonomi ini
pernah dianut Indonesia di tahun 1950-an sebelum akhirnya diganti dengan sistem
ekonomi Pancasila. Negara lainnya yang menganut sistem ekonomi
kapitalis antara lain: Amerika Serikat, Kanada, Inggris, Perancis,
Belgia, Irlandia, dan Swiss.
Era pendudukan jepang
Pada jaman pendudukan Jepang kehidupan ekonomi rakyat sangat
menderita.Lemahnya ekonomi rakyat berawal dari sistem bumi hangus Hindia
Belanda ketika mengalami kekalahan dari Jepang pada bulan Maret 1942.Sejak
itulah kehidupan ekonomi menjadi lumpuh dan keadaan ekonomi berubah dari
ekonomi rakyat menjadi ekonomi perang.Langkah pertama yang dilakukan Jepang
adalah merehabilitasi prasarana ekonomi seperti jembatan, alat-alat
transportasi dan komunikasi.Selanjutnya Jepang menyita seluruh kekayaan musuh
dan dijadikan hak milik Jepang, seperti perkebunan-perkebunan, bank-bank,
pabrik-pabrik, perusahaan-perusahaan, telekomunikasi dan lainlain.Hal ini
dilakukan karena pasukan Jepang dalam melakukan serangan ke luar negaranya
tidak membawa perbekalan makanan Kebijakan ekonomi pemerintah pendudukan Jepang
diprioritaskan untuk kepentingan perang. Perkebunan kopi, teh dan tembakau yang
dianggap sebagai barang kenikmatan dan kurang bermanfaat bagi kepentingan
perang diganti dengan tanaman penghasil bahan makanan dana tanaman jarak untuk
pelumas.
Pola ekonomi perang yang dilancarakan oleh Tokyo dilaksanakan
secara konsekuen dalam wilayah yang diduduki oleh angkatan perangnya.Setiap
lingkungan daerah harus melaksanakan autarki (berdiri di atas kaki sendiri),
yang disesuaikan dengan situasi perang. Jawa dibagi atas 17 lingkungan autarki,
Sumatra atas 3 lingkungan dan daerah Minseifu (daerah yang diperintah Angkatan
Laut Jepang) dibagi atas 3 lingkungan autarki. Karena dengan sistem
desentralisasi maka Jawa merupakan bagian daripada “LingkunganKemakmuran
Bersama Asia Timur Raya” mempunyai dua tugas, yakni:
- memenuhi
kebutuhan sendiri untuk tetap bertahan,
- mengusahakan
produksi barang- barang untuk kepentingan perang.
Seluruh kekayaan alam Indonesia dimanfaatkan Jepang untuk
biaya perang.Bahan makanan dihimpun dari rakyat untuk persediaan prajurit
Jepang seharihari, bahkan juga untuk keperluan perang jangka panjang. Beberapa
tindakan Jepang dalam memeras sumber daya alam dengan cara-cara berikut ini :
- Petani
wajib menyetorkan hasil panen berupa padi dan jagung untuk keperluan
konsumsi militer Jepang. Hal ini mengakibatkan rakyat menderita kelaparan.
- Penebangan
hutan secara besar-besaran untuk keperluan industri alat-alat perang,
misalnya kayu jati untuk membuat tangkai senjata. Pemusnahan hutan ini
mengakibatkan banjir dan erosi yang sangat merugikan para petani. Di
samping itu erosi dapat mengurangi kesuburan tanah.
- Perkebunan-perkebunan
yang tidak ada kaitannya dengan keperluan perang dimusnahkan, misalnya
perkebunan tembakau di Sumatera. Selanjutnya petani diwajibkan menanam
pohon jarak karena biji jarak dijadikan minyak pelumas mesin pesawat
terbang. Akibatnya petani kehilangan lahan pertanian dan kehilangan waktu
mengerjakan sawah. Sedangkan untuk perkebunan-perkebunan kina, tebu, dan
karet tidak dimusnahkan karena tanaman ini bermanfaat untuk kepentingan perang.
- Penyerahan
ternak sapi, kerbau dan lain-lain bagi pemilik ternak. Kemudian ternak
dipotong secara besar-besaran untuk keperluan konsumsi tentara Jepang. Hal
ini mengakibatkan hewan-hewan berkurang padahal diperlukan untuk
pertanian, yakni untuk membajak. Dengan dua tugas inilah maka serta
kekayaan pulau Jawa menjadi korban dari sistem ekonomi perang pemerintah
pendudukan Jepang.
Cara yang ditempuh untuk pengerahan tenaga Romusha ini
dengan bujukan, tetapi apabila tidak berhasil dengan cara paksa. Untuk menarik
simpati penduduk, Jepang mengatakan bahwa Romusha adalah pahlawan pekerja yang
dihormati atau prajurit ekonomi.Mereka digambarkan sebagai orang yang sedang
menunaikan tugas sucinya untuk memenangkan Perang Asia Timur Raya.Sedangkan
panitia pengerah Romusha disebut Romukyokai.Di samping rakyat, bagi para pamong
praja dan pegawai rendahan juga melakukan kerja bakti sukarela yang disebut
Kinrohoshi.Pemimpin-pemimpin Indonesia membantu pemerintah Jepang dalam
kegiatan Romusha ini. Bung Karno memberi contoh berkinrohonsi (kerja bakti),
Bung Hatta memimpin Badan Pembantu Prajurit Pekerja atau Romusha. Ali
Sastroamijoyo, S.H. mempelopori pembaktian barang-barang perhiasan rakyat untuk
membantu biaya perang Jepang.
Akibat dari Romusha ini jumlah pria di kampung-kampung
semakin menipis, banyak pekerjaan desa yang terbengkelai, ribuan rakyat tidak
kembali lagi ke kampungnya, karena mati atau dibunuh oleh Jepang.Coba
bandingkan dengan rodi pada jaman penjajahan Belanda Untuk mengawasi penduduk
atas terlaksananya gerakan-gerakan Jepang maka dibentuklah tonarigumi (rukun
tetangga) sampai ke pelosok pelosok pedesaan.Dengan demikian sumber daya
manusia rakyat Indonesia khususnya di Jawa dimanfaatkan secara kejam untuk
kepentingan Jepang.Akibat dari tekanan politik, ekonomi, sosial maupun kultural
ini menjadikan mental bangsa Indonesia mengalami ketakutan dan kecemasan.
Cita – cita ekonomi merdeka
Jika banyak di antara kita dalam
beberapa tahun terakhir merasa gusar tentang telah terjadinya perpecahan dan
saling curiga antarorang dan antara kelompok-kelompok dalam masyarakat, mengapa
tidak banyak yang “melayangkan” pikiran ke kondisi “bangsa” tahun 1928.
Ketika pemuda-pemudi kita menyatakan sumpah “bersatu” karena merasa bertanah air, berbangsa dan berbahasa yang sama yaitu Indonesia, tentulah ketika itu ada perasaan amat kuat untuk menyingkirkan perbedaan-perbedaan, dan bertekad kuat menemukan persamaan-persamaan. Pemuda-pemudi kita waktu itu menyepakati satumusuh bersama yaitu penjajah Belanda, dan mereka bersumpah untuk bersatu mengusir musuh itu.Indonesia Medeka adalah tujuan semua gerakan pemuda.Pada tahun itu juga, bulan Maret 1928, pemuda Moh. Hatta yang baru berusia 26 tahun membuat pembelaan luar biasa di pengadilan Den Haag, dengan hasil ia dibebaskan dari tuduhan “menghasut terhadap kekuasaan umum”.
Ketika pemuda-pemudi kita menyatakan sumpah “bersatu” karena merasa bertanah air, berbangsa dan berbahasa yang sama yaitu Indonesia, tentulah ketika itu ada perasaan amat kuat untuk menyingkirkan perbedaan-perbedaan, dan bertekad kuat menemukan persamaan-persamaan. Pemuda-pemudi kita waktu itu menyepakati satumusuh bersama yaitu penjajah Belanda, dan mereka bersumpah untuk bersatu mengusir musuh itu.Indonesia Medeka adalah tujuan semua gerakan pemuda.Pada tahun itu juga, bulan Maret 1928, pemuda Moh. Hatta yang baru berusia 26 tahun membuat pembelaan luar biasa di pengadilan Den Haag, dengan hasil ia dibebaskan dari tuduhan “menghasut terhadap kekuasaan umum”.
Dua tahun kemudian di pengadilan (landraad)
Bandung, seorang pemuda lain Ir. Soekarno, yang berusia 29 tahun, juga diadili
karena dituduh melalui partai yang dipimpinnya, Partai Nasional Indonesia, akan
memberontak terhadap pemerintah yang sah, pemerintah Hindia-Belanda. Ir.
Soekarno akhirnya dihukum 4 tahun penjara.
Apa yang seharusnya menyentak kita
semua sekarang yang membiarkan berkembangnya rasa saling curiga dan saling
bermusuhan? Mengapa kita tidak lagi merasa perlu bersatu menghadapi “musuh
bersama” yang menghadang seluruh rakyat dan bangsa kita yaitu kemiskinan,
kedunguan, dan keserakahan.Mengapa gugatan Soekarno terhadap
keserakahan kapitalisme-liberalisme-imperialisme kini, 75 tahun kemudian
kita anggap gugatan kuno yang tidak cocok lagi dengan kondisi sekarang?Mengapa
ada pakar ekonomi kita yang lebih suka memilih globalisme kapitalis ketimbang
idealisme Hatta yang dianggapnya tidak lagi relevan?
Demikianlah kita menghimbau pakar-pakar
penyusun Visi Masa Depan Bangsa untuk tidak meninggalkan sejarah. Justru
sejarah kita harus dijadikan pangkal tolak melihat masa depan. Dan jika kita
ingin melihat visi masyarakat Indonesia ke depan, titik-titik dan periode
sejarah masa lalu harus menjadi pegangan kita karena akan lebih jelas
perbandingannya. Maka pilihan Visi Indonesia 2020 atau 2025 menjadi tidak
relevan. Kami dengan mantap menyarankan kita untuk menyusun:
Ekonomi Indonesia setiap periode
pemerintahaan orde lama, orde baru, dan reformasi
Sejak berdirinya negara Republik
Indonesia, sudah banyak tokok-tokoh negara yang saat itutelah merumuskan bentuk
perekonomian yang tepat bagi bangsa Indonesia, baik secara individumaupun
diskusi kelompok.Tetapi pada pemerintah orde lama masih belum mampu
memperbaikikeadaan ekonomi negara Republik Indonesia yang memburuk.
·
Orde lama (Demokrasi Terpimpin)
Keadaan ekonomi keuangan pada masa awal kemerdekaan amat
buruk, antara lain disebabkanoleh :
a. Inflasi yang sangat tinggi, disebabkan karena beredarnya
lebih dari satu mata uang secara tidakterkendali. Pada waktu itu, untuk
sementara waktu pemerintah RI menyatakan tiga mata uang yangberlaku di wilayah
RI, yaitu mata uang De Javasche Bank, mata uang pemerintah Hindia Belanda,dan
mata uang pendudukan Jepang.
b.AdanyablokadeekonomiolehBelandasejakbulanNovember1945untukmenutuppintuperdagangan
luar negeri RI.
c. Kas negara kosong.
d. Eksploitasi besar-besaran di masa
penjajahan.
Usaha-usaha yang dilakukan untuk
mengatasi kesulitan-kesulitan ekonomi, antara lain :
a. Program Pinjaman Nasional
dilaksanakan oleh menteri keuangan Ir. Surachman dengan persetujuan masa ini
disebut masa liberal, karena dalam politik maupun sistem ekonominya
menggunakanprinsip-prinsip liberal. Perekonomian diserahkan pada pasar sesuai
teori-teori mazhab klasik yangmenyatakan laissez faire laissez passer.Padahal
pengusaha pribumi masih lemah dan belum bisa bersaing dengan pengusaha
nonpribumi, terutama pengusaha Cina.Pada akhirnya sistem ini hanyamemperburuk
kondisi perekonomian Indonesia yang baru merdeka.
Usaha-usaha yang dilakukan untuk
mengatasi masalah ekonomi, antara lain :
a) Gunting Syarifuddin, yaitu pemotongan nilai uang
(sanering) 20 Maret 1950, untukmengurangijumlah uang yang beredar agar tingkat
harga turun.
b) Program Benteng (Kabinet Natsir)
c) Nasionalisasi De Javasche Bank menjadi Bank Indonesia
pada 15 Desember 1951 lewat UU no.24 tahun 1951 dengan fungsi sebagai bank
sentral dan bank sirkulasi.
d) Sistem ekonomi Ali-Baba (kabinet Ali Sastroamijoyo I)
yang diprakarsai Mr Iskak Cokrohadisuryo
e) Pembatalan sepihak atas hasil-hasil Konferensi Meja
Bundar, termasuk pembubaran Uni Indonesia – Belanda.
Masa Demokrasi Terpimpin (1959-1967)
Sebagai akibat dari dekrit presiden 5 Juli 1959, maka
Indonesia menjalankan sistem demokrasiterpimpin dan struktur ekonomi Indonesia
menjurus pada sistem etatisme (segala-galanya diatur olehdekat dengan
Cendana.Hal ini mengakibatkan Aspirasi rakyat sering kurang didengar
olehpusat.Pembagian PAD juga kurang adil karena 70% dari PAD tiap provinsi tiap
tahunnya harusdisetor kepada Jakarta, sehingga melebarkan jurang pembangunan
antara pusat dan daerah.
·
Orde Baru
Pada
masa Orde Baru, Indonesia melaksanakan pembangunan dalam berbagai aspek
kehidupan.Tujuannya adalah terciptanya masyarakat adil dan makmur yang merata
materiil dan spirituil berdasarkan Pancasila.Pelaksanaan pembangunan bertumpu
pada TrilogiPembangunan, yang isinya meliputi hal-hal berikut.
1. Pemerataan pembangunan dan hasil-hasilnya menuju
terciptanya keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.
2. Pertumbuhan ekonomi yang cukup tinggi.
3. Stabilitas nasional yang sehat dan dinamis.
Pembangunan
nasional pada hakikatnya adalah pembangunan manusia Indonesia seutuhnya dan
pembangunan masyarakat Indonesia seluruhnya.Berdasarkan Pola Dasar Pembangunan
Nasional disusun Pola Umum Pembangunan Jangka Panjang yang meliputi kurun waktu
25-30 tahun.Pembangunan Jangka Panjang (PJP) 25 tahun pertama dimulai tahun
1969 – 1994.Sasaran utama PJP I adalah terpenuhinya kebutuhan pokok rakyat dan
tercapainya struktur ekonomi yang seimbang antara industri dan pertanian.Selain
jangka panjang juga berjangka pendek. Setiap tahap berjangka waktu lima tahun.
Tujuan pembangunan dalam setiap pelita adalah pertanian, yaitu meningkatnya
penghasilan produsen pertanian sehingga mereka akan terangsang untuk membeli
barang kebutuhan sehari-hari yang dihasilkan oleh sektor industri. Sampai tahun
1999, pelita di Indonesia sudah dilaksanakan sebanyak 6 kali. Dalam membiayai
pelaksanaan pembangunan, tentu dibutuhkan dana yang besar. Di samping
mengandalkan devisa dari ekspor nonmigas, pemerintah juga mencari bantuan
kredit luar negeri. Dalam hal ini, badan keuangan internasional IMF berperan
penting.Dengan adanya pembangunan tersebut, perekonomian Indonesia mencapai
kemajuan.Meskipun demikian, laju pertumbuhan ekonomi yang cukup besar hanya
dinikmati para pengusaha besar yang dekat dengan penguasa.Pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak
dibarengi dengan pemerataan dan landasan ekonomi yang mantap sehingga ketika
terjadi krisis ekonomi dunia sekitar tahun 1997, Indonesia tidak mampu bertahan
sebab ekonomi Indonesia dibangun dalam fondasi yang rapuh.Bangsa Indonesia
mengalami krisis ekonomi dan krisis moneter yang cukup berat.Bantuan IMF
ternyata tidak mampu membangkitkan perekonomian nasional.Hal inilah yang
menjadi salah satu factor penyebab runtuhnya pemerintahan Orde Baru tahun 1998.
·
Masa Reformasi
Masa pemerintahan Habibie ditandai dengan dimulainya
kerjasama dengan Dana Moneter
Internasionaluntuk
membantudalamproses pemulihanekonomi. Selainitu,Habibie juga
melonggarkan pengawasan terhadap
media massa dan kebebasan berekspresi.
Presiden BJ Habibie mengambil
prakarsa untuk melakukan koreksi. Sejumlah tahanan politik
dilepaskan. Sri Bintang Pamungkas dan Muchtar Pakpahan
dibebaskan, tiga hari setelah Habibiemenjabat.Tahanan politik dibebaskan secara
bergelombang.Tetapi, Budiman Sudjatmiko danbeberapa petinggi Partai Rakyat
Demokratik baru dibebaskan pada era Presiden AbdurrahmanWahid.Setelah Habibie
membebaskan tahanan politik, tahanan politik baru muncul.Sejumlahaktivis
mahasiswa diadili atas tuduhan menghina pemerintah atau menghina kepala
negara.Desakanmeminta pertanggungjawaban militeryangterjeratpelanggaranHAM tak bias
dilangsungkan karena kuatnya proteksi politik. Bahkan, sejumlah perwira militer
yang olehMahkamah Militer Jakarta telah dihukum dan dipecat karena terlibat
penculikan, kini telahkembali duduk dalam jabatan struktural.
Ketika Habibie mengganti Soeharto
sebagai presiden tanggal 21 Mei 1998, ada lima isu
terbesar yang harus dihadapinya,
yaitu:
a. masa depan Reformasi;
b. masa depan ABRI;
c. masa depan daerah-daerah yang
ingin memisahkan diri dari Indonesia;
d. masa depan Soeharto, keluarganya,
kekayaannya dan kroni-kroninya; serta
e. masa depan perekonomian dan
kesejahteraan rakyat.
BerikutinibeberapakebijakanyangberhasildikeluarkanB.J.Habibiedalamrangka
menanggapi tuntutan reformasi dari
masyarakat.
a. Kebijakan dalam bidang politik
Reformasi dalam bidang politik berhasil mengganti lima paket
undang-undang masa OrdeBaru dengan tiga undang-undang politik yang lebih
demokratis. Berikut ini tiga undang-undangtersebut.
1. UU No. 2 Tahun 1999 tentang
partai politik
2. UU No. 3 Tahun 1999 tentang
Pemilihan Umum.
3. UU No. 4 Tahun 1999 tentang
Susunan dan Kedudukan DPR/MPR.
b. Kebijakan dalam bidang ekonomi
Untukmemperbaikiperekonomianyangterpuruk,terutamadalamsektorperbankan,
pemerintah membentuk Badan Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional
(BPPN). Selanjutnya pemerintahmengeluarkan UU No. 5 Tahun 1999 tentang Larangan
Praktik Monopoli dan Persaingan TidakSehat, serta UU No. 8 Tahun 1999 tentang
Perlindungan Konsumen.
c. Kebebasan menyampaikan pendapat
dan pers
Kebebasan menyampaikan pendapat
dalam masyarakat mulai terangkat kembali. Hal ini
terlihat dari munculnya partai-partai politik dari berbagai
golongan dan ideologi. Masyarakatbisa menyampaikan kritik secara terbuka kepada
pemerintah. Di samping kebebasan dalammenyatakan pendapat, kebebasan juga
diberikan kepada pers. Reformasi dalam pers dilakukandengan cara
menyederhanakan permohonan Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan (SIUP).
d. Pelaksanaan Pemilu
Pada masa pemerintahan Habibie, berhasil diselenggarakan
pemilu multipartai yang damaidanpemilihanpresidenyangdemokratis.Pemilutersebutdiikutioleh48partaipolitik.Keberhasilan
lain masa pemerintahan Habibie adalah penyelesaian masalah Timor Timur.
UsahaFretilin yang memisahkan diri dari Indonesia mendapat respon.Pemerintah
Habibie mengambilkebijakan untuk melakukan jajak pendapat di Timor
Timur.Referendum tersebut dilaksanakanpada tanggal 30 Agustus 1999 di bawah
pengawasan UNAMET.Hasil jajak pendapat tersebutmenunjukkan bahwa mayoritas
rakyat Timor Timur lepas dari Indonesia.Sejak saat itu TimorTimur lepas dari
Indonesia. Pada tanggal 20 Mei 2002 Timor Timur mendapat
kemerdekaanpenuhdengannamaRepublik DemokratikTimorLeste denganpresidennyayang
pertamaXanana Gusmao dari Partai Fretilin.
Daftar Pustaka
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